Aligning content with expectations reflects the constructivist philosophy. Might we say that teachers should begin designing every lesson by examining their own philosophies? Each of us can use our unique philosophy and expectations to design goals, content, and activities. Goals, Objectives and Domains The model indicates that curriculum planners start by specifying the major educational goals and specific objectives they wish to accomplish. Every major goal represents a curriculum domain and they advocate four major goals or domains:.
Personal development, 2. Human Relations, 3. Continued learning skills and 4. The goals, objectives and domains are chosen after careful consideration of several and external variables such as findings from educational research, accreditation standards, views of community groups and others. Curriculum Designing. When the goals, objectives and domains have been established, planners move into the process of designing the curriculum. Here, decision is made on the appropriate learning opportunities for each domain and how and when these opportunities will be provided.
Curriculum Implementation Once the designs have been developed, the next step is implementation of the designs by teachers. Based on the design of the. Evaluation Lastly, curriculum planners and teachers engage in evaluation. It is proposed the evaluation should be comprehensive using a. Evaluation should involve the total educational programme of the school and curriculum. Through the evaluation process, curriculum planners. Specify particular subject needs. Preliminary Organize and Final selection Select selection of Evaluation of Evaluation of implement of evaluation strategies evaluation instruction curriculum curriculum techniques techniques.
Faculty can focus on the curricular components of the model to make pragmatic decisions. He defined the intersecting parts of the diagram as follow:. Behavior modification through I teacher feedback VII. Pupil-teacher planning experiences VI V X. Eisner was developed with combination of his interests in art and education curriculum. It comprises seven components which are follows:.
This model involves five stages. It is politically sensitive. Walker begun studying what people actually do when planning curricula. Let us discuss his step. However, there are more criticism about this model. First, Walker studied only large-scale curriculum planning.
Secondly, the deliberative approach is directed only to the planning of the curriculum. After the curriculum is designed, there is no description about implementation, evaluation and possible revision of the curriculum. Teacher determine how much time to spend in developing basic or critical — thinking skills. Teacher must also be involved in every level of curriculum development. As Michael Fullan and his colleagues have stated, teachers can function not only as co-designers of expert curricular and instructional system but also co- researchers into the effectiveness of implement curricula.
Many schools are starting to allow teachers to choose or develop the program for which they are responsible. Their input is significant in its own right, accepting them to participate in curriculum development also inspires them and encourages them to take responsibility for matters that concern them. Yet, many principals are solely lacking in curriculum and instructional expertise.
When principals give attention to curricular activities, they often do so from a largely managerial perspective. Recently, most college programs that teach and train principals devoted little time to curriculum. Mostly their were stressed on personnel matters, education law, school budget, and organizational models, to the detriment of curriculum and instruction.
Hence, the parent ,ay stand in the gap between the student and school administration by providing the student with resources that may help teacher to monitor the behavior and social development of the students especially for students with special education needs. The parents can get consistent information on curriculum development by asking from their children or by asking from the teachers or school administrators. These people have a broad knowledge of curriculum and are experts in creating and implementing curricula.
They usually do not have a major in specific content. In school curriculum, other generalists are known as department heads or chairs of elementary or secondary education. They have some background in curriculum, but they posses a major in a content discipline and are often more concerned with supervising instruction. These specialists are responsible for ensuring that programs are conceptualized, designed, and implement.
For a grass roots initiative or community-based organization, that means conveying the true nature of your organization, the issues it deals with, and its accomplishments to the community. To communicate effectively, it helps to plan out what you want from your communication, and what you need to do to get it. Your goal, in this case, is to raise awareness about your initiative's long-term benefits to your community. The answers to these questions constitute your action plan, what you need to do to successfully communicate with your audience.
The remainder of your communication plan, involves three steps:. Communication is an ongoing activity for any organization that serves, depends upon, or is in any way connected with the community. The purpose, audience, message, and channels may change, but the need to maintain relationships with the media and with key people in the community remain. As a result, an essential part of any communication plan is to continue using and revising your plan, based on your experience, throughout the existence of your organization.
As soon as your organization begins planning its objectives and activities, you should also start planning ways to communicate them; successful communication is an ongoing process, not a one-time event.
Communication is useful at all points in your organization's development - it can help get the word out about a new organization, renew interest in a long-standing program, or help attract new funding sources. You might be concerned with one or a combination of the following:. Who are you trying to reach? Knowing your audience makes it possible to plan your communication logically. You'll need different messages for different groups, and you'll need different channels and methods to reach each of those groups.
There are many different ways to think about your audience and the best ways to contact them. You can group people according to several characteristics:.
Another aspect of the audience to consider is whether you should direct your communication to those whose behavior, knowledge, or condition you hope to affect, or whether your communication needs to be indirect. Sometimes, to influence a population, you have to aim your message at those to whom they listen — clergy, community leaders, politicians, etc.
For instance, in the s, advocates wanted to stop Nestle from selling baby formula and paying doctors and nurses to recommend it to parents in the developing world.
Ultimately, the company agreed to change its practices. In the course of a national adult literacy campaign in the s, educators learned that TV ads that profiled proud, excited, successful adult learners attracted new learners to literacy programs.
Ads that described the difficulties of adults with poor reading, writing, and math skills attracted potential volunteers. Both ads were designed to make the same points — the importance of basic skills and the need for literacy efforts — but they spoke to different groups.
You should craft your message with your audience in mind; planning the content of your message is necessary to make it effective. The mood of your message will do a good deal to determine how people react to it.
It may take some experience to learn how to strike the right balance. Keeping your tone positive will usually reach more people than evoking negative feelings such as fear or anger. There are two aspects to language here. One is the actual language — English, Spanish, Korean, Arabic — that your intended audience speaks.
The other is the style of language you use — formal or informal, simple or complex, referring to popular figures and ideas or obscure ones.
The second language issue is more complicated. You should use plain, straightforward language that expresses what you want to say simply and clearly. What does your intended audience read, listen to, watch, or engage in?
Several interactive theater groups in New England, by stopping the action and inviting questions and comments, draw audiences into performances dramatizing real incidents in the lives of the actors, all of whom are staff members and learners in adult literacy programs.
They have helped change attitudes about adult learners and bring information about adult literacy and learning into the community. What do you have the money to do? Do you have the people to make it possible? Who will lose what, and who will gain what by your use of financial and human resources? You may also be able to share materials, air time, and other goods and services with individuals, businesses, other organizations, and institutions.
Any number of things can happen in the course of a communication effort. Someone can forget to e-mail a press release or forget to include a phone number or e-mail address.
A crucial word on your posters or in your brochure can be misspelled, or a reporter might get important information wrong. Worse, you might have to deal with a real disaster involving the organization that has the potential to discredit everything you do. Crisis plans should include who takes responsibility for what — dealing with the media, correcting errors, deciding when something has to be redone rather than fixed, etc.
It should cover as many situations, and as many aspects of each situation, as possible. You have to make personal contacts, give the media and others reasons to want to help you, and follow through to sustain those relationships to keep communication channels open. The individuals that can help you spread your message can vary from formal community leaders — elected officials, CEOs of prominent local businesses, clergy, etc. Institutions and organizations, such as colleges, hospitals, service clubs, faith communities, and other health and community organizations, all have access to groups of community members who might need to hear your message.
The Philippine educational system is divided in three educational levels: primary, secondary and tertiary levels. Based on the Philippine Constitution of , all schools shall aim to: 1.
Inculcate patriotism and nationalism 2. Foster love of humanity 3. Promote respect for human rights 4. Appreciate the role of national heroes in the historical development of the country 5.
Teach the rights and duties of citizenship 6. Strengthen ethical and spiritual values 7. Develop moral character and personal discipline 8. Encourage critical and creative thinking 9. Aims of Tertiary Education Tertiary education refers to college and university formal education based on the curricula of the different courses.
It provides the focal point or unifying element according to which the school staff, faculty, students perform individually or collectively. It is the guiding post around which all educational efforts including should be directed. A model performing high school where students are equipped with knowledge, skill and strength of character to realize their potential to the fullest.
Commits to the exemplary Christian education for life and responsive to the needs of the total person and the world. The mission targets to produce the kind of persons the students will become after having been educated over a certain period of time. To produce globally competitive lifelong learners. Commits to the total development of individuals for life adjustment and to the enlistment of the economically deprived but deserving students through quality instruction, updated facilities and curricula responsive to the needs of the times.
Data for the sources of school goals may include the learns, the society and the fund of knowledge. Examples of school goals: 1. Build a strong foundation of skills and concepts. Efficient and effective administration responsive of the needs of the university and community In a curriculum, these goals are made simple and specific for the attainment of each learner.
These are called educational objectives. Benjamin bloom and Robert Mager defined educational objectives in two ways: 1. Explicit formulations of the ways in which students are expected to be changed by the educative process, and 2. Intent communicated by statement describing a proposed change in learners.
In other words, objectives direct the change in behavior which is the ultimate aim of learning. They provide the bases for the selection of learning content and learning experiences. They also set the criteria against which learning outcomes will be evaluated. Benjamin Bloom and his associates classified three big domains of objectives. These are cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.
Each domain is composed of specific skills, attitudes and values which are presented in hierarchy or levels. Although there are some Cognitive Domain Bloom et al — domain of thought process 1. Knowledge — recall, remembering of prior learned materials in terms of facts, concepts, theories and principles.
It is the lowest cognitive level 2. Comprehension — ability to grasp the meaning of material. Application — the ability to use learned material in new and concrete situation 4. Analysis — ability to breakdown material into component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood 5.
Synthesis — ability to put parts together to form a new whole 6. Evaluation — ability to pass judgment on something based on given criteria Affective Domain Krathwohl, — domain of valuing, attitude and appreciation 1.
Responding — active participation on the part of the students 3. Valuing — concerned with the worth or value a student attaches to a particular phenomena, object or behavior 4. Organization — concerned with bringing together different values and building a value system 5.
Characterization by a value or value complex — developing a lifestyle from a value system Psychomotor Domain Simpson, — domain of the use of psychomotor attributes 1. Perception — use of sense organs to guide motor activities 2. Guided response — concerned with the early stages in learning complex skills.
Imitation and trial and error are some of the ways of doing. Mechanism — responses have become habitual. Performance skills are with ease and confidence. Component 2 — Curriculum Content or Subject Matter All curricula have content, regardless of their design or models. Content is more than simply information to be learned in school. To some curriculum specialists, content or subject matter is another term for knowledge.
It is a compendium of facts, concepts generalization, principles and theories. Let us look into broad subject areas in basic or general education. Each subject area has its own body of subject matter or learning content. Communication Arts — include skills in listening, speaking, reading and writing as well as the effective use of language in daily living.
Mathematics — includes numeric and computational skills, geometry and measurement, algebra, logic and reasoning. Music — includes basic music theory, practice in listening, singing, playing musical instruments and music preparation.
Physical Education—includes health and physical fitness, individual and team sports, spectatorship and wise use of leisure. Vocational Education — includes psychomotor and manipulative skills in basic crafts and trades, design, work ethic and appreciation of manual productive work.
What subject matter will be taught in the different clusters in order to achieve the objectives? What criteria should be used in selecting the content? Content selection is a very crucial stage in curriculum development. Here are some criteria which can be utilized in the selection of subject matter content or knowledge for the curriculum. Significance — When content or subject matter will contribute to basic ideas, concepts, principles, and generalization to achieve the overall aim of the curriculum, then it is significant.
It is also significant if it will develop learning abilities, skills, processes and attitude. Subject matter is significant if it will develop the cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills of the learners. Validity — The authenticity of the subject matter selected is its validity. With information explosion, oftentimes, knowledge selected for school content may become obsolete. Thus subject matter should be checked or verified at regular intervals, to determine if the content that was originally valid continues to be.
A learner will value the content if it is meaningful to him or her. Utility — Usefulness of the content or subject matter may be relative to the learner who is going to use it. Usefulness maybe either be for the present or the future. Learnability — Subject matter in the curriculum should be within the range of experiences of the learners.
This is clearly suggested by the psychological foundations of a curriculum. There are ways of presenting subject matter or content which can easily be learned. Optimal placement and appropriate organization and sequencing of contents are the two ways by which these can be done. Content selection should be considered within the context of the existing reality in school, in society and government. It would be of greater he curriculum makers can use them.
As a guide, subject matter or content can be rejected for use he these are: a. In organizing or putting together the different learning contents Palma, suggested the following principles: balance, articulation, sequence, integration and continuity. Curriculum content should be fairly distributed in depth and breadth of the particular learning area or discipline.
This will ensure that the level or area will not be overcrowded or less crowded. When each level of subject matter is smoothly connected to the next, glaring gap and wasteful overlaps in the subject matter will be avoided.
It refers to the deepening and broadening of content as it is taken up in the higher levels. The horizontal connections are needed in subject areas that are similar so that learning will be related to one another. This will help the learner get a holistic or unified view of reality and outlook in life.
Learning requires a continuing application of the new knowledge, skills, attitudes states so that there will be used in daily living. Instead it will link instructional strategies and methods to curriculum experiences, the core or the heart of the curriculum.
The instructional strategies and methods will put into action the goal and use the contents in order to produce an outcome. Teaching Strategies convert the written curriculum to instruction. Both the teacher and the learner take actions to facilitate learning. The actions are based on planned objectives, the subject matters to be taken and the support materials to be used. There will include a multitude of teaching methods and educational activities which will enhance learning.
Educational activities like field viewing, conducting experiments, interacting with computer programs, field trips and other experiential learning will also form part of the repertoire of teaching. Whatever methods the teacher utilizes to implement the curriculum, there will be some guide for the selection and use.
Here are some of them: 1. Teaching methods are means to achieve the end. They are used to translate the objectives into action. There is one single best teaching method. Its effectiveness will depend on the learning objectives, the learning and skill of the teacher. Teaching methods should stimulate the learners desire to develop the cognitive, affective, psychomotor, social and spiritual domain of the individual. In the choice of the teaching methods, learning styles of the students should be considered.
Every method should lead to the development of the learning outcomes in the three domains: cognitive, affective and psychomotor. Flexibility should be a consideration in the use of the teaching methods. Curriculum evaluation here may refer to the formal determination of the quality, effectiveness or value of the program, process, product of the curriculum.
Tuckman defines evaluation as meeting the goals and matching them with the intended outcomes. From the definitions, several models of evaluation came up. In CIPP, the process is continuous and is very important to curriculum managers like principals, supervisors, department head, deans and even teachers. The context refers to the environment of the curriculum. The real situation where the curriculum is operating is its context.
Simply put, context evaluation refers to situation analysis. Input refers to the ingredients of curriculum which include the goals, instructional strategies, the learners, the teacher, the contents and all the materials needed.
The process refers to views and means of how the curriculum has been implemented. This component of the CIPP looks into the entire operation of the curriculum.
The product indicates he the curriculum accomplishes its goals. It will determine to what extent the curriculum objectives have been achieved.
The CIPP model can be taken as a whole, or each component taken separately. It is a long of continuous process. Within the evaluation process, smaller and more specific activities are needed to determine the effectiveness of the curriculum. There activities include assessment and measurement of learning outcomes, the ultimate product of a curriculum. With the variety of evaluation methods are the different materials which can be effectively utilized.
You will study there in more detail in the modules that come later. Regardless of the methods and materials evaluation will utilize, a suggested plan of action for the process of curriculum evaluation is introduces.
These are the steps. Will it be the subject area, the grade level, the course, or the degree program? Specify the objectives of evaluation. Collect or having the information. Information is made up of data needed regarding the object of evaluation. Organize the information. This step will require coding, organizing, storing and retrieving data for interpretation. Analyze information. An appropriate way of analyzing will be utilized. Report the information.
The result of evaluation should be reported to specific audiences. Reporting can be done formally in conferences with stakeholders, or informally through roundtable discussions and conversations.
Recycle the information for continuous feedback, modification and adjustments to be made. In summary, the components of a curriculum are distinct but are interrelated to each other in a curriculum design as shown in figure 2. Figure 2 — Interrelationship of the Components of a Curriculum Curriculum Approaches There are five curriculum approaches that will be presented in this lesson.
Curriculum practitioners and implementers may use one or more approaches in planning, implementing and evaluating the curriculum. Even textbook writers or instructional material producers have different curricular approaches. Let us study and understand each example. Behavioral Approach — Anchored on the behaviorist principles, behavioral approach to curriculum is usually based on a blueprint. In the blueprint, goals and objectives are specified, contents and activities are also arranged to match with the learning objectives.
The learning outcomes are evaluated in terms of goals and objectives set at the beginning. Behavioral approach which was started with the idea of Frederick Taylor is aimed to achieve efficiency. In the factory for example, the worker will be paid according to his output produced with in a specific period of time. In education, behavioral approach begins with educational plans that start withthe setting of goals or objectives. These are considered as important ingredients in curriculum implementation as evaluating the learning outcomes as a change of behavior.
The change in behavior indicates the measure of the accomplishments. The general manager sets the policies and priorities, establishes the direction of change and innovation, and planning and organizing curriculum and instruction. School administrators are less concerned about the content than about organization and implementation.
They are less concerned about subject matter, methods and materials than improving curriculum. Curriculum managers look at curriculum changes and innovations as they administer the resources and restructure the schools. Some of the roles of the Curriculum Supervisors Ornstein and Hunkins, are the following: 1.
Plan curriculum with students, parents, teachers and other stakeholders. Design programs of study by grade levels. Plan or schedule classes or school calendar. Prepare curriculum guides or teacher guides by grade level or subject area. Help in the evaluation and selection of textbooks. Observe teachers. Assist teachers in the implementation of the curriculum. Encourage curriculum innovation and change. Develop standards for curriculum and instructional evaluation. System Approach — The systems approach to curriculum was influenced by systems theory.
In the systems approach to curriculum, the parts of the total school district or school are examined in terms of how they relate to each other. The organizational chart of the school represents a systems approach. To George Beauchamp, the systems theory of education sees the following to be of equal importance are 1 administration 2 counselling 3 curriculum 4 instruction and 5 evaluation. The humanistic approach considers the formal or planned curriculum and the informal or hidden curriculum.
It considers the whole child and believes that in curriculum the total development of the individual is the prime consideration. The learner is at the center of the curriculum. Activity 1 will be on the elements or components of the curriculum and Activity 2 will be on the approaches to curriculum. Activity1 — Lesson Plan: A Curriculum? Get a copy of the best written lesson plan of your favorite teacher in the elementary or high school. Add this to your portfolio collection. Read every detail of the lesson plan and specifically look into the following: 1.
What are the objectives of the lesson plan? What is the subject matter content? What strategies or methods of teaching are utilized? What evaluation procedure is used? Do the four components fit or match with one another? Can you consider a lesson plan as a curriculum? Activity 2 — Mr. Make an interview protocol regarding curriculum approach with your groupmates. Show your output to your teacher for comments. Refine your instrument and place a sample in your portfolio. Choose a school with a principal as your respondent.
Secure permission to interview the principal at a certain time of the school day. Record all the answers to your protocol. From your interview, what kind of curriculum approach is the principal using? Why do you say so? Let us reflect on this issue. Choose a particular level elementary,secondary,tertiary and a specific subject area Science, Math, English as a point of reference. In your own experiences as a student: a. Identify at least 3. Describe the weaknesses or difficulties.
Are there solutions to these conditions? What do you propose? Can a school curriculum succeed without a clear vision? Will subject matter dictate the approach in curriculum? Should the learning activities be congruent to the objectives of the curriculum? Should evaluation of learning outcomes be based on the experiences of the learners? As a student of curriculum, will you put equal emphasis on the four curricular components?
Does a principal with a humanistic approach to curriculum emphasize most memorization of subject matter? Does the systems approach to curriculum consider only each part? Can there be a curriculum without evaluation? Can experiences be measured? Bilbao, Ed,D. This description implies that the crux of a curriculum is the different planned and unplanned activities which have been lived, acted upon or done by the learners with the guidance of the teacher.
Hence in curriculum development, the teaching and learning are actions necessary to accomplish a goal in education. What is the role of teaching in the curriculum development?
Who does it? This lesson will focus on the teaching and learning processes as salient components of the curriculum. Both processes provide experiences which will accomplish the goals of education. What knowledge is needed to understand this process? This section clarifies the process of the teaching as it relates to the experiences in the curriculum, an important ingredient. Good teaching is difficult to agree upon. While it remains to be difficult to agree on what good teaching is, effective teaching can be demonstrated.
Effective teaching is one that will bring about intended learning outcomes. Because of the changing paradigms of teaching, several definitions have evolved based on the theories of teaching and learning that have come about. Some view teaching as an organization of meaningful learning. To the traditionalists, teaching is process of imparting knowledge and skills required to master a subject matter.
It is a process of dispensing knowledge to an empty vessel which is the mind of the learner. Teaching is showing, telling, giving instruction, making someone understand in order to learn. In this instance, the person who teaches, controls learning.
This person is a teacher, a dispenser of knowledge, an ultimate authority, a director of learning. On the other hand, as progressive and humanist education advance, the meaning of teaching broadened to fit the psychological meaning of the term.
Teaching is now perceived as stimulating, directing, guiding the learner and evaluating the learning outcomes of teaching. It looks similar to curriculum development. Definitely, it is because the process of teaching replicates the process of curriculum development.
The implementation phase of curriculum development is the actual teaching and experiencing of a curriculum. The teaching process is shown in Figure 3 below. Teaching plans maybe short term like the daily plan or long term plan like the unit plan or a yearly plan. In a plan, considerations should include the learner, availability of materials, time requirements of particular activities, the strategies needed to achieve the objectives and the teacher.
The planning phase recognizes the intent that it will be the learners who will learn, hence the next phase will engage more the learner. The implementation phase requires the teacher to implement what has been planned. Based on the objectives, implementation means to put into action the different activities in order to achieve the objectives through the subject matter. Here, two important players are involved: the teacher and the learner. Their interaction is important in the accomplishment of the plan.
Most often the planning phase directs what will be done in the activity but such can also be flexible. The use of the different teaching styles and strategies should be included in the implementation phase.
In the evaluation phase, a match of the objectives with the learning outcomes will be made. The kind of information should be determined so that the type of the evaluation should be chosen to fit the purpose.
Simply, the evaluation phase will answer the question if the plans and implementation have been successfully achieved. In all the three phases of teaching, a continuous process of feedback and reflection as to whether the three phases were appropriately done and gave good results. In short, feedback is the reflection on the feedback. Is there a need to adjust something in planning, implementation and evaluation? Reflection is a process embedded in teaching where the teacher inquires into his or her actions and provides deep and critical thinking.
To further clarify, what teaching is all about there are some indicators which you can use to guide in the process of good teaching. Good teaching is one that is well planned and where activities are interrelated to each other. Good teaching is one that provides learning experiences or situations that will ensure understanding, application and critical thinking. Good teaching is based on the theories of learning. Good teaching is one where the learner is stimulated to think and reason.
Good teaching utilizes prior learning and its application to new situations. Good teaching embeds a sound evaluation process. What is learning?
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